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Machine generated contents note: pt. I The Ocean's Role in the Climate System -- 1.The Ocean as a Component of the Climate System / Thomas F. Stocker -- 1.Setting the Scene -- 2.The Ocean as an Exchanging Earth System Reservoir -- 3.Atmosphere-Ocean Fluxes and Meridional Transports -- 4.Global-Scale Surface and Deep Ocean Circulations -- 5.Large-Scale Modes of Variability Involving the Ocean -- 6.The Ocean's Role in Past Climate Change -- 7.The Ocean in the Anthropocene -- 8.Concluding Thoughts -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 2.Paleoclimatic Ocean Circulation and Sea-Level Changes / Georg Feulner -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Reconstructing Past Ocean States -- 2.1.Proxies for Past Ocean Circulation -- 2.2.Past Sea-Level Proxies -- 2.3.Models -- 3.The Oceans in the Quaternary -- 3.1.The Last Glacial Maximum -- 3.2.Abrupt Glacial Climate Changes -- 3.3.Glacial Cycles -- 3.4.Interglacial Climates -- 4.The Deeper Past -- 4.1.Challenges of Deep-Time Paleoceanography -- 4.2.The Oceans During the Mid-Cretaceous Warm Period -- 5.Outlook -- Acknowledgments -- References -- pt. II Ocean Observations -- 3.In Situ Ocean Observations: A Brief History Present Status, and Future Directions / Martin Visbeck -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Development of Present Observational Capability -- 2.1.Late Nineteenth to Mid-Twentieth Centuries -- 2.2.Second Half of Twentieth Century -- 2.3.Twenty-First Century: Consolidation of Capabilities and Growth of Sustained Observations -- 3.Emerging and Specialized Ocean Observing Technologies -- 3.1.Advanced Observing Platforms -- 3.2.Specialized Observing Systems and Technologies -- 3.3.New Sensors -- 4.Changes in Data Volume and Coverage and Implication for Synthesis Products -- 5.The Future: Outstanding Issues and a New Framework for Global Ocean Observing -- 5.1.Building on Ocean Obs '09 -- 6.Conclusions -- References -- 4.Remote Sensing of the Global Ocean Circulation / Rosemary Morrow -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Ocean General Circulation -- 3.Variability of the Large-Scale Ocean Circulation -- 3.1.Sea Surface Height -- 3.2.Ocean Mass and Bottom Pressure -- 3.3.Global Mean Sea-Level Change -- 3.4.Forcing by the Atmosphere and Air-Sea Interaction -- 4.Mesoscale Eddies and Fronts -- 4.1.Mapping the Eddy Field -- 4.2.Wave Number Spectra and the Ocean Energy Cascade -- 4.3.Seasonal and Interannual Variations in Eddy Energy -- 4.4.Tracking Individual Eddies -- 4.5.Surface Currents from Multisensor Mapping -- 4.6.Eddy Fluxes of Ocean Properties -- 4.7.Submesoscale Dynamics -- 4.8.Eddies and Biogeochemical Processes -- 5.Summary and Outlook -- Acknowledgments -- References -- pt. III Ocean Processes -- 5.Exchanges Through the Ocean Surface / Lisan Yu -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Air-Sea Exchange Formulae and Climatological Fields -- 2.1.Air-Sea Exchange Formulae -- 2.2.Climatological Fields -- 3.Measurement Techniques and Review of Datasets -- 3.1.Flux Measurement and Estimation Techniques -- 3.2.Flux Datasets: Overview of Recent Products -- 3.3.Flux Datasets: Evaluation Techniques -- 4.Variability and Extremes -- 4.1.Impacts of Large-Scale Modes of Variability on Surface Fluxes -- 4.2.Surface Flux Response to Anthropogenic Climate Change -- 4.3.Transfers Under Extreme Conditions -- 5.Ocean Impacts -- 5.1.Impacts on Near-Surface Ocean Layer Properties, Water Mass Transformation -- 5.2.Impacts of Surface Fluxes on Ocean Circulation -- 6.Outlook and Conclusions -- 6.1.Prospects for Improved Flux Datasets -- 6.2.Prospects for Enhanced Observational Constraints -- 6.3.Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 6.Thermodynamics of Seawater / Rich Pawlowicz -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Absolute Salinity Sa and Preformed Salinity S* -- 2.1.Reference-Composition Salinity SR -- 2.2.Absolute Salinity SA -- 2.3.Preformed Salinity S* -- 3.The Gibbs-Function Approach to Evaluating Thermodynamic Properties -- 4.The First Law of Thermodynamics and Conservative Temperature -- 5.The 48-Term Expression for Specific Volume -- 6.Changes to Oceanographic Practice Under TEOS-10 -- 7.Ocean Modeling Using TEOS-10 -- 8.Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 7.Diapycnal Mixing Processes in the Ocean Interior / Alberto C. Naveira Garabato -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Mixing Basics -- 3.Turbulence in and Below the Surface Mixed Layer -- 3.1.Langmuir Turbulence -- 3.2.Inertial Motions -- 3.3.An Equatorial Example -- 3.4.Fronts and Other Lateral Processes -- 4.Mixing in the Ocean Interior -- 4.1.Internal Wave Breaking -- 4.2.Mixing in Fracture Zones -- 4.3.Mesoscale Dissipation as a Source of Turbulent Mixing -- 4.4.In-Depth Example: Southern Ocean Mixing -- 5.Discussion -- 5.1.Finescale Parameterizations of Turbulent Mixing -- 5.2.Global Values and Patterns -- 5.3.Representing Patchy Mixing in Large-Scale Models: Progress and Consequences -- 6.Summary and Future Directions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 8.Lateral Transport in the Ocean Interior / F.O. Bryan -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Theory of Mass, Tracer, and Vector Transport -- 2.1.Fundamental Equations -- 2.2.Steady, Conservative Equations -- 2.3.Reynolds-Averaged Equations -- 2.4.Diffusion by Continuous Movements -- 2.5.Sources of Anisotropy in Oceanic Diffusion -- 2.6.The Veronis Effect -- 2.7.Streamfunction and Diffusivity -- 3.Observations and Models of Spatial Variations of Eddy Statistics -- 4.Mesoscale Isoneutral Diffusivity Variation Parameterizations -- 4.1.Parameterizations Versus Diagnosed K -- 4.2.New Parameterization Approaches and Future Developments -- 5.Conclusions and Remaining Questions -- Acknowledgment -- References -- 9.Global Distribution and Formation of Mode Waters / Gael Forget -- 1.Mode Water Observations -- 2.Global Water Mass Census of the Upper Ocean -- 3.Global Distribution of Mode Water -- 4.Formation of Mode Water -- 5.PV Framework -- 6.Mode Water and Climate -- 7.Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 10.Deepwater Formation / Cecilie Mauritzen -- 1.Introduction -- 1.1.Circulation and Distribution of NADW and AABW -- 1.2.Observed Heat Content Changes in AABW -- 1.3.Observed Heat Content Changes in Upper and Lower NADW -- 2.Processes of Deepwater Formation -- 2.1.Deep Convection: The Example of Formation of Upper North Atlantic Deep Water -- 2.2.Entrapment: The Example of the Formation of the Lower North Atlantic Deep Water -- 2.3.Shelf and Under-Ice Processes: The Example of Formation of AABW -- 3.Interannual and Decadal Variability in Properties, Formation Rate, and Circulation -- 3.1.Labrador Sea Water: Variability in Properties and Formation Rate -- 3.2.Greenland-Scotland Ridge Overflow Water: Variability in Properties and Overflow Rate -- 3.3.Relationship Between Formation Rates of NADW and Changes in the AMOC -- 3.4.Antarctic Bottom Water: Variability in Properties and Formation Rate -- 4.Conclusions and Outlook -- References -- pt. IV Ocean Circulation and Water Masses -- 11.Conceptual Models of the Wind-Driven and Thermohaline Circulation / Henk A.
Dijkstra -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Wind-Driven Circulation -- 2.1.Ekman Layer and Ekman Overturning Cells -- 2.2.Sverdrup Balance -- 2.3.Western Boundary Currents and Inertial Recirculation -- 2.4.Vertical Structure of the Wind-Driven Circulation -- 2.5.Role of Bottom Topography -- 3.Thermohaline Circulation -- 3.1.Energetics and Global Perspective -- 3.2.Role of the Southern Ocean and Relation to the Antarctic Circumpolar Current -- 3.3.Water Mass Formation -- 3.4.Three-Dimensional Structure of the THC -- 3.5.Feedbacks and Multiple Equilibria -- 3.6.Does the South Atlantic Determine the Stability of the THC? -- 4.Transient Behaviour of the Wind-Driven and Thermohaline Circulation -- 5.Discussion and Perspective -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 12.Ocean Surface Circulation / Luca Centurioni -- 1.Observed Near-Surface Currents -- 1.1.Global Drifter Program and History of Lagrangian Observations -- 1.2.Mean Surface Circulation -- 2.Geostrophic Surface Circulation -- 2.1.High-Resolution Mean Dynamic Topography -- 2.2.Striated Patterns -- 2.3.Variability and Trends -- 3.Ageostrophic Currents -- 3.1.Motion Driven by Wind -- 3.2.Centrifugal Effects -- 3.3.Nonlinear Interactions with Baroclinic Features -- 4.Regional Surface Ocean Dynamics -- 4.1.Drifter Studies in the California Current System -- 4.2.Drifter Studies off Senegal -- 4.3.Interaction of the Kuroshio with the South China Sea -- 4.4.Interaction of the Kuroshio with the East China Sea -- 5.Applications -- 6.Future Directions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 13.Western Boundary Currents / Bo Qiu -- 1.General Features -- 1.1.Introduction -- 1.2.Wind-Driven and Thermohaline Circulations -- 1.3.Transport -- 1.4.Variability -- 1.5.Structure of WBCs -- 1.6.Air-Sea Fluxes -- 1.7.Observations -- 1.8.WBCs of Individual Ocean Basins -- 2.North Atlantic -- 2.1.Introduction -- 2.2.Florida Current -- 2.3.Gulf Stream Separation -- 2.4.Gulf Stream Extension -- 2.5.Air-Sea Interaction -- 2.6.North Atlantic Current -- 3.South Atlantic -- 3.1.Introduction -- 3.2.Brazil Current -- 3.3.Brazil Current Separation and the Brazil-Malvinas Confluence -- 3.4.Malvinas Current -- 3.5.Annual and Interannual Variability -- 4.Indian Ocean -- 4.1.Somali Current -- 4.2.Agulhas Current -- 5.North Pacific -- 5.1.Upstream Kuroshio -- 5.2.Kuroshio South of Japan -- 5.3.Kuroshio Extension -- 6.South Pacific -- 6.1.Upstream EAC -- 6.2.East Australian Current -- 6.3.EAC Extension -- 7.Concluding Remarks -- 7.1.Separation from the Western Boundary -- 7.2.Northern and Southern Hemispheres -- 7.3.Recent and Future Studies -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 14.Currents and Processes along the Eastern Boundaries / Oscar Pizarro -- 1.Introduction and General Background -- 1.1.Dominant Processes -- 1.2.Data and Model Fields -- 2.Low-Latitude EBCs -- 2.1.The Mean Circulation in the Eastern Tropics -- 2.2.Seasonal Changes in Surface Wind Forcing, Surface Currents, and SSH Anomalies -- 3.Midlatitude EBCs: The EBUS -- 3.1.Mean and Seasonal Circulation --
Note continued: 3.2.Higher Frequency Mesoscale Variability -- 4.High-Latitude EBCs -- 4.1.The Gulf of Alaska Circulation -- 5.Climate Variability and the Ocean's Eastern Boundaries -- 5.1.The Dominant Processes -- 5.2.Climate Modes -- 5.3.Changes in Processes -- 5.4.Relating Modes to Models -- 5.5.Effects of EBCs on Climate -- 6.Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 15.The Tropical Ocean Circulation and Dynamics / Gilles Reverdin -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Tropical Pacific Variability -- 2.1.Western Pacific Warm Pool -- 2.2.Climate Variations: ENSO and ENSO Modoki -- 3.Tropical Atlantic Variability -- 3.1.MOC and Western Boundary Circulation in the Tropical Atlantic -- 3.2.Climate Variability -- 4.Tropical Indian Ocean Variability -- 4.1.Monsoon Ocean Circulations and Upwelling Regimes -- 4.2.The IOD -- 4.3.MJO with Indian Ocean Focus -- 4.4.IOD, ENSO, and Monsoon Interactions -- 5.Progresses in Tropical Climate Predictions -- 6.Outlooks -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 16.The Marine Cryosphere / David M. Holland -- 1.Introduction -- 1.1.Marine Cryosphere -- 1.2.Lce Physics -- 1.3.Ocean Impacts -- 1.4.Relation to Other Chapters -- 2.Sea Ice -- 2.1.Observations -- 2.2.Modeling -- 2.3.Ocean Mixed-Layer Interaction -- 2.4.Polynyas -- 2.5.Impact on Water Masses, and Circulation -- 2.6.Biogeochemical Ramifications -- 3.Land Ice -- 3.1.Observations -- 3.2.Modeling -- 3.3.Ocean Mixed-Layer Interaction -- 3.4.Impacts on Water Masses -- 3.5.Geochemical Tracers -- 3.6.Sea-Level Change -- 4.Marine Permafrost -- 4.1.Pure Ice -- 4.2.Methane Clathrates -- 5.Emerging Capabilities -- 5.1.Ice-Capable Observations -- 5.2.Ocean-Capable Observations -- 5.3.Ice-Capable Modeling -- 6.Cryospheric Change -- 6.1.Observed Sea-lce Change -- 6.2.Sea-lce Projections -- 6.3.Observed Land-lce Change -- 6.4.Land-lce Projections -- 6.5.Marine Permafrost -- 7.Summary -- References -- 17.The Arctic and Subarctic Oceans/Seas / John Toole -- 1.Introduction -- 1.1.Geography -- 2.Exchanges with the Subpolar Oceans and Beyond -- 2.1.Volume Transports -- 3.Currents and Water Mass Transformations in the Arctic/Subarctic -- 3.1.The Norwegian Atlantic Current -- 3.2.Arctic Ocean -- 3.3.Canadian Archipelago and Baffin Bay -- 3.4.East Greenland Current -- 4.Evidence of Long-term Changes in the Arctic/Subarctic -- 4.1.Introduction -- 4.2.Evidence for Change in the Arctic Ocean -- 5.Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 18.Dynamics of the Southern Ocean Circulation / Alberto C. Naveira Garabato -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Progress in Understanding Southern Ocean Dynamics During WOCE (1990 -- 2002) -- 3.The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) -- 3.1.Structure of the ACC -- 3.2.Transport of the ACC -- 3.3.Response of the ACC to Wind and Buoyancy Forcing -- 4.Southern Ocean Overturning Circulation -- 4.1.Water Mass Transformations and Southern Ocean Overturning -- 4.2.Estimates of the Rate of Southern Ocean Overturning -- 4.3.Residual-Mean Circulation -- 4.4.Eddy Stirring of PV -- 5.Southern Ocean Change -- 5.1.Warming and Freshening of the Southern Ocean -- 5.2.Changes in the Southern Ocean Inventory of Dissolved Gases -- 5.3.Changes in Southern Ocean Water Masses -- 5.4.Ocean-lce Shelf Interaction -- 5.5.Changes in Southern Ocean Sea Ice -- 5.6.Causes of Recent Southern Ocean Change -- 6.Summary and Outstanding Challenges -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 19.Interocean and Interbasin Exchanges / Herle Mercier -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Interocean Exchanges at Choke Points -- 2.1.Drake Passage -- 2.2.Agulhas System -- 2.3.Indonesian Throughflow -- 3.Interbasin Exchanges -- 3.1.Nordic Seas -- Atlantic Ocean -- 3.2.Mediterranean Sea -- Atlantic Ocean -- 3.3.Red Sea -- Indian Ocean -- 3.4.Okhotsk Sea -- Pacific Ocean -- 4.Deep Passages -- 4.1.Atlantic Ocean: Romanche Fracture Zone, Vema, and Hunter Channels -- 4.2.Pacific Ocean: Samoan Passage Wake Island Passage -- 4.3.Indian Ocean: Southwest Indian Ridge Amirante Passage -- 5.Discussion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- pt. V Modeling the Ocean Climate System -- 20.Ocean Circulation Models and Modeling / Anne Marie Treguier -- 1.Scope of this Chapter -- 2.Physical and Numerical Basis for Ocean Models -- 2.1.Scales of Motion -- 2.2.Thermo-Hydrodynamic Equations for a Fluid Parcel -- 2.3.Approximation Methods -- 2.4.Thermo-Hydrodynamic Equations for a Finite Region -- 2.5.Physical Considerations for Transport -- 2.6.Numerical Considerations for Transport -- 2.7.Vertical Coordinates -- 2.8.Unstructured Horizontal Grid Meshes -- 3.Ocean Modeling: Science Emerging from Simulations -- 3.1.Design Considerations for Ocean-lce Simulations -- 3.2.Analysis of Simulations -- 4.Summary Remarks -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 21.Dynamically and Kinematically Consistent Global Ocean Circulation and lce State Estimates / Patrick Heimbach -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Definition -- 3.Data Assimilation and the Reanalyses -- 4.Ocean State Estimates -- 4.1.Basic Notions -- 4.2.The Observations -- 5.Global-Scale Solutions -- 5.1.Summary of Major, Large-Scale Results -- 5.2.Longer Duration Estimates -- 5.3.Short-Duration Estimates -- 5.4.Global High-Resolution Solutions -- 5.5.Regional Solutions -- 6.The Uncertainty Problem -- 7.Discussion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 22.Methods and Applications of Ocean Synthesis in Climate Research / Shuhei Masuda -- 1.Introduction -- 1.1.Definitions -- 1.2.Ocean Climate Models -- 1.3.The Global Ocean Observing System -- 1.4.Ocean Syntheses -- 2.Methods with a Focus on Developments in the Last Decade -- 2.1.Sequential Methods -- 2.2.Smoother Methods -- 2.3.Improved Procedure for Data Assimilation -- 3.Applications for Climate Research -- 3.1.Significant Progress in the Past Decade -- 3.2.Ocean Circulation -- 3.3.Upper-Ocean Heat Budget -- 3.4.Water Mass Pathways -- 3.5.Initialization for Climate Prediction -- 4.Assessments of the Impact of New and Future Climate Observing Systems -- 4.1.Indian Ocean Observing System -- 4.2.North Atlantic Meridional Overturning -- 5.Conclusion and Future Challenges -- 5.1.Coupled Data Assimilation -- 5.2.High-Resolution Data Assimilation and Climate Research -- 5.3.Understanding Consistency and Uncertainty -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 23.Coupled Models and Climate Projections / Peter R.
Gent -- 1.Formulation of Coupled Models -- 2.Flux Adjustments -- 3.Control Runs -- 4.Twentieth Century Runs -- 5.Future Projections -- 6.North Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation -- 7.El Nino/Southern Oscillation -- 8.Uses of Climate Models -- 9.Limitations of Climate Models -- 10.Cutting Edge Issues -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 24.The Ocean's Role in Modeling and Predicting Seasonal-to-Interannual Climate Variations / Robert Burgman -- 1.Introduction -- 2.The Scientific Basis for Seasonal-to-Interannual Prediction -- 2.1.El Nino and the Southern Oscillation -- 2.2.Tropical Atlantic Variability -- 2.3.Tropical Indian Ocean Variability -- 2.4.Extratropical SST Predictability -- 3.Development of Seasonal-to-Interannual Prediction Systems -- 3.1.Historical Review -- 3.2.Ocean Data Assimilation for Initializing Forecasts and for Assessing Models -- 3.3.Current Forecast Quality -- 3.4.Biases and the Need to Improve Models Resolved Eddies -- 4.Closing Remarks: Challenges for the Future Research -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 25.The Ocean's Role in Modeling and Predicting Decadal Climate Variations / Mojib Latif -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Tropical Pacific and Tropical Atlantic Decadal Variability -- 3.Description of Extratropical Decadal Variability from Observations -- 3.1.Pacific -- 3.2.Atlantic -- 3.3.Southern Ocean Centennial Variability -- 4.The Stochastic Climate Model: The Null Hypothesis for Climate Variability -- 4.1.The Zero-Order Stochastic Climate Model -- 4.2.Hyper Mode -- 4.3.Stochastic Models with Mean Advection and Spatial Coherence -- 4.4.Stochastic Wind Stress Forcing of a Dynamical Ocean -- 4.5.Stochastically Driven AMOC Variability -- 4.6.Stochastic Coupled Variability Involving the AMOC -- 4.7.Stochastically Forced Southern Ocean Variability -- 5.Decadal Predictability -- 6.Summary and Discussion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 26.Modeling Ocean Biogeochemical Processes and the Resulting Tracer Distributions / Marion Gehlen -- 1.Goals of Ocean Biogeochemical Modeling within Climate Research -- 2.Concepts and Methods of Biogeochemical Ocean Modeling -- 2.1.Tracer Conservation and Classification of Tracers -- 2.2.Classification of Models -- 2.3.Biogeochemical Cycles and Processes Included in BOGCMs -- 2.4.Links Between the Water Column and Other Reservoirs -- 2.5.Model Coupling, Model Resolution, and Model Complexity -- 3.Model Results, Evaluation, Skill, and Limits and Model Data Fusion/Data Assimilation -- 3.1.Ability of BOGCMs to Match Natural Tracer Distributions to First Order -- 3.2.Optimization of BOGCMs -- 4.Major Marine Carbon Modeling Findings of the Recent Decade -- 4.1.Future Biogeochemical Climate Projections Including Oceanic Carbon Cycle Feedback -- 4.2.Modeling the Interaction of Ocean Circulation with Greenhouse Gas Fluxes and Biological Production -- 4.3.Model Assessment and Detection Limits of Ocean Acidification -- 5.Conclusion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- pt. VI The Changing Ocean -- 27.Sea-Level and Ocean Heat-Content Change / Elaine R. Miles -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Fundamental Concepts of Sea-Level Change -- 3.Observations of Sea-Level Change -- 3.1.Sea-Level Change on Multimillenial Time Scales -- 3.2.Instrumental Observations of Sea-Level Change -- 3.3.Reconstructions of Global Mean Sea Level -- 4.Observations of Ocean Heat-Content and Steric Sea-Level Change -- 4.1.Historical Observations -- 4.2.Global Ocean Heat-Content and Thermal Expansion Estimates -- 4.3.The Global Energy Balance -- 5.Understanding Observed Sea-Level Change -- 5.1.Changes in Ocean Mass -- 5.2.The Sea-Level Budget -- 5.3.Recent Direct Observations of Ocean-Mass Changes -- 5.4.Modeling Global Mean Sea-Level Change --
Note continued: 6.Prediction and Projections of Future Sea-Level Change -- 6.1.Interannual Sea-Level Predictions -- 6.2.Sea-Level Projections -- 6.3.The Regional Distribution of Sea-Level Change -- 7.Future Outlook -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 28.Long-term Salinity Changes and Implications for the Global Water Cycle / Tim P. Boyer -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Salinity Observations in the Global Oceans -- 2.1.Measuring Ocean Salinity -- 2.2.Definitions of Ocean Salinity -- 3.Observed Salinity Variability -- 4.Observed Long-Term Changes to Ocean Salinity -- 4.1.Observed Surface Salinity Changes -- 4.2.Observed Zonal-Mean SSS Changes -- 4.3.Observed Subsurface Salinity Changes -- 4.4.Quantifying Rates of SSS Change -- 5.Ocean Salinity -- Relationship to the Global Water Cycle -- 5.1.Linking Evaporation and Precipitation Fluxes to Salinity -- 5.2.Idealized Ocean Responses to E-P Forcing Experiments -- 6.Modeling Ocean Salinity Variability and Change -- 6.1.Considerations when Analyzing Modeled Salinity -- 6.2.Modeled Water Cycle Changes Assessed from Ocean Salinity -- 7.Summary and Outlook -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 29.Ocean Heat Transport / Molly O. Baringer -- 1.Background -- 1.1.Energy Balance in the Atmosphere -- 1.2.Energy Balance at the Ocean Surface -- 1.3.Heat Transport in the Ocean -- 2.Calculation of Ocean Heat Transport -- 2.1.Indirect Ocean Heat Transport Estimation -- 2.2.Direct Ocean Heat Transport Estimation -- 3.Observation-Based Estimates of Ocean Heat Transport -- 3.1.Atlantic -- 3.2.Indo-Pacific -- 3.3.Southern Ocean -- 4.Understanding Mechanisms -- 4.1.Barotropic-Baroclinic-Horizontal Decomposition (BBH) -- 4.2.Shallow Subducting Overturn Decomposition (SOV) -- 5.Ocean Heat Transport Variability -- 5.1.Repeat Hydrography -- 5.2.Transition to Timeseries Arrays -- 5.3.Float Program -- 5.4.Ships of Opportunity and Expendable Instrumentation -- 5.5.Summary of Observational Approaches -- 6.Synthesis and Summary -- References -- 30.The Marine Carbon Cycle and Ocean Carbon Inventories / Arne Kortzinger -- 1.Introduction and Background to the Marine Carbon Cycle -- 2.History of Observations and Capacity to Collect Marine Carbon Cycle Measurements -- 2.1.Measurable Parameters of the Seawater CO2-Carbonate System -- 2.2.History and Coordination of Global-Scale Marine Carbon Cycle Measurements -- 2.3.Data Synthesis Products and Quality Control Procedures -- 3.The Anthropogenic Perturbation of the Marine Carbonate System -- 3.1.Review of Recent Estimates of Global Cant Storage -- 3.2.Monitoring Decadal Change of DIC and Cant -- 3.3.Feedbacks and the Non-Steady-State Ocean -- 4.Ocean Inventories, Storage Rates, and Uptake of CO2 and Cant -- 4.1.Indian Ocean -- 4.2.Pacific Ocean -- 4.3.Atlantic Ocean -- 4.4.Arctic Ocean -- 4.5.Marginal Seas -- 5.Ocean Time-Series Validation of Trends in DIC/pCO2/Cant -- 6.Conclusion and Outlook -- Acknowledgments -- References -- 31.Marine Ecosystems, Biogeochemistry, and Climate / Scott C. Doney -- 1.Introduction -- 2.Phytoplankton, Primary Production, and Climate -- 3.Climate Impacts on Higher Trophic Levels -- 4.Ocean Acidification -- 5.Deoxygenation and Hypoxia -- 6.Marine Biogeochemical Cycles-Climate Interactions -- 7.Observational and Research Directions -- Acknowledgments -- References.
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