서지주요정보
Ceria-based electrode for direct-hydrocarbon utilization in solid oxide Fuel Cell = 탄화수소연료 동작용 고체산화물연료전지를 위한 세리아 기반 고성능·고내구성 연료극 개발
서명 / 저자 Ceria-based electrode for direct-hydrocarbon utilization in solid oxide Fuel Cell = 탄화수소연료 동작용 고체산화물연료전지를 위한 세리아 기반 고성능·고내구성 연료극 개발 / Yoonseok Choi.
발행사항 [대전 : 한국과학기술원, 2019].
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소장위치/청구기호

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DMS 19011

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A main advantage of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) operating at high temperatures (> 600 C) is the flexibility of the fuel they use, specifically as they offer the possibility to utilize hydrocarbons (e.g. natural gas). This would enable near-term realization of efficiency advantages for fuel conversion into electricity, even in the absence of a hydrogen delivery infrastructure. Essential in related research is the development of high-performance and robust anodes. Ceria ($CeO_2$), either doped or undoped, has been a key component presumably due to its high stability against carbon deposition and its high catalytic activity in hydrocarbon environments. However, even with the simplest hydrocarbon molecule, $CH_4$, the mechanism of electrochemical oxidation on the ceria surface has not been clarified. In particular, in addition to the complicated processes of $CH_4$ oxidation, it is challenging to investigate targeted electrochemical reactions selectively from various chemical reactions, such as the steam reforming reaction, that occur simultaneously on typical ceria-based composite anodes. To address this issue, through pulsed laser deposition and photolithographic lift-off processes, I fabricated polarizable, Sm-doped ceria (SDC) thin-film-based model electrochemical cells which enable selective monitoring of the direct-electro-oxidation of CH4 at the ceria/gas interface. Combined experimental (impedance spectroscopy and ambient-pressure x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) and theoretical (density functional calculations) methods were utilized to collect information about the surface reactions. Both experimental results consistently indicated that the SDC surface catalyzes the C-H cleavage. In contrast, the presence of a hydroxyl group as a dominant intermediate on the SDC, where $CH_4$ oxidation takes place, confirmed that the overall electrode reaction rate is mainly limited by the $H_2O$ formation step. Furthermore, the theoretical calculations showed that the electron transfer process which takes place during the $H_2O$ formation step can be important. In order to improve the electrocatalysis of the SDC surface, the application of active metal nanoparticles (NPs) was investigated. Particularly, I focused on developing an accurate analysis of the reactivity of oxide electrodes boosted by metal nanoparticles, with all particles participating in the reaction. Monodisperse particles, in this case Pt, Pd, Au and Co, 10 nm in size and stable at high temperatures (> 600 C), are uniformly distributed onto mixed-conducting oxide electrodes as a model electrochemical cell via self-assembled nanopatterning. Impedance and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy results showed that $H_2O$ formation is still likely to be the rate-limiting step for Pt NP-SDC electrodes, whereas the electron transfer rate was significantly faster than that on the bare SDC. This demonstrated the important electrocatalytic effects of metal catalysts on the surface reaction kinetics. In addition to $CH_4$ electro-oxidation, a study of $H_2$ electro-oxidation through the proposed model system was successfully conducted. Regarding high-temperature electrocatalysis, experimental evidence of active reaction sites and the inherent reactivity of four different metals is reported for the first time. Finally, as a means by which to apply the insights obtained above to a practical SOFC electrode, I investigated a cost-effective coating method, well known as cathodic electrochemical deposition (CELD), to design highly active and robust ceria-based SOFC anodes by creating ceria nanostructures with a high specific surface area. A fundamental understanding of the electrochemical formation of ceria nanostructures was achieved through chronoamperometry and with an electrochemical quartz micro-balance. I applied CELD to the Ni/YSZ model anodes as a rapid surface coating method and confirmed that ceria nanostructures dramatically enhanced the electrode performance. Moreover, the coated layer effectively improved the coking resistance of the Ni surface in a $CH_4$ environment. As ongoing work, two-step CELD will be discussed to synthesize metal NP-decorated ceria nanostructures to increase the activity further.

고체산화물 연료전지는 고온(> 600도)에서 전기화학적 산화반응을 통해 연료의 화학에너지를 전기에너지로 직접 변환시키는 고효율의 친환경 에너지 장치이다. 특히, 현재 활용 장벽이 존재하는 수소 대신 상용화된 천연가스(메탄)과 같은 탄화수소 연료를 직접 주입하여 구동하는 기술은 고체산화물 연료전지 상용화에 크게 기여할 수 있을 것으로 기대된다. 이때 관련 연구의 핵심은 고성능·고내구성 연료극 개발에 있으며 관련하여 탄소 침적 저항성과 우수한 반응성을 특징으로 하는 세리아($CeO_2$)계 소재가 중요한 역할을 하고 있다. 그러나 여전히 우수한 연료극 제작을 위한 근본이 되는 전극 표면에서의 탄화수소에 대한 전기화학 반응에 대한 기본적인 이해는 매우 부족한 실정이다. 이는 가장 단순한 메탄의 경우에도, 산화 과정의 복잡성에 더해 다양한 화학 반응들이 함께 수반되어 이를 가중시킨다는 사실에 기인한다. 본 학위 연구에서는 pulsed laser deposition 기반의 박막 제작 기술을 활용하여, 인가 전압을 제어하며 Sm-doped $CeO_2$ (SDC) 표면에서의 전기화학 반응만을 선택적으로 관찰할 수 있는 전기화학 셀을 제작하였다. 메탄 산화반응이 발생하는 SDC 표면에 대한 정보는 임피던스 분석과 ambient-pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy 분석과 같은 실험적 접근법과 density functional theory 계산을 통한 이론적 접근법을 통해 종합적으로 수집되었다. 두 실험적 결과는 공통적으로 SDC 표면이 메탄으로부터 수소를 해리시키는 단계에 대해 우수한 반응성을 지닌다는 것을 입증하였다. 반면, 반응 과정에서 SDC 표면에는 수산화기가 중간 종으로 존재함을 관찰하여 반응속도 결정단계가 물을 형성하는 과정과 관련이 깊다는 사실을 확인하였다. 나아가 이어지는 연구에서 물 형성과정을 촉진하는 나노입자의 역할이 전자 전달 과정과 관여되어 있다는 이론적 계산 결과에 근거하여 반응속도 결정단계가 세부적으로 전자 전달과 관련이 깊다는 사실을 발견하였다. 촉매 도입을 통한 전극 표면 반응성 개선을 위해, 금속나노입자의 활용에 대해 연구하였다. 특히, 전극 표면에 담지한 나노입자 고유의 촉매 특성을 정밀하게 분석하기 위해 블록 공중합체 자가조립 기반의 나노패터닝 공정을 도입하여 굉장히 균일한 크기와 간격을 갖는 금속나노입자가 분포된 모델 전기화학 셀을 설계 및 제작하였다. 이를 바탕으로 수행된 약 10 nm 크기의 백금나노입자가 SDC 표면에서의 전기화학적 반응에 미치는 영향이 정량적으로 평가되었고 그 역할이 규명되었다. 약 100배에 이르는 극적인 반응성 향상이 유일하게 물 형성 단계와 관련된 중간 종의 변화와 함께 수반되었다. 구체적으로, 백금나노입자 도입 후 SDC 표면에서는 수산화기 외에 분자 형태의 물이 추가로 관찰되었으며 이는 전자 전달 촉진에 따른 후속 단계인 물 탈착 단계의 정체로 이해될 수 있다. 메탄 산화반응 외에도, 제안한 모델 전극을 통한 수소의 전기화학적 산화 반응에 대한 사례 연구가 성공적으로 수행되었다. 이를 통해 고온 전기화학 반응에 대한 활성 반응점 규명, 다양한 나노입자의 고유 촉매 특성 정량 비교 등의 세계 최초의 실험적 결과들을 보고하였다. 마지막으로 우수한 성능을 가진 세리아계 연료극을 쉽고 경제적인 방법으로 개발하기 위해 전기화학도금을 이용한 코팅 기술을 연구하였다. 앞선 연구에의 통찰력에 기초하여 비표면적이 극대화된 세리아 구조체를 얻고자 하였다. 이를 위해 전기화학도금법에 대한 증착 매커니즘을 자세히 연구하였다. 결과적으로 제작된 세리아 나노구조체를 모델 Ni/YSZ 전극에 코팅층의 형태로 도입하여 성능 및 탄소침적 저항성 향상을 입증하였다. 이와 함께, 전기화학도금법을 통해 추가적인 성능 향상이 확인된 니켈 나노입자가-세리아 나노복합체 제작기법이 제안되었다. 결론적으로 학위 연구간 수행된 이론적·기술적 연구 결과들이 직접 탄화수소계 연료 주입-고체산화물 연료전지 기술 발전에 기여할 수 있을 것으로 기대한다.

서지기타정보

서지기타정보
청구기호 {DMS 19011
형태사항 ix, 132 p. : 삽화 ; 30 cm
언어 영어
일반주기 저자명의 한글표기 : 최윤석
지도교수의 영문표기 : WooChul Jung
지도교수의 한글표기 : 정우철
수록잡지명 : "Electrochemically modified, robust solid oxide fuel cell anode for direct-hydrocarbon utilization". Nano Energy, Volume 23, 161-171
학위논문 학위논문(박사) - 한국과학기술원 : 신소재공학과,
서지주기 References : p. 116-126
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Schematic ofa general SOFC operation with CH4 fuels.

Possible direct/indirect methane oxidation pathways in SOFC anodes.

The comparison of requisite for the good SOFC anodes. Qualitative indexing ofCu-based, perovskites, and Ni-based (oblique-lined region) anodes in terms offuelflexibility, redox stability, electrocatalytic activity, and electrical conductivity.

Single cell SOFC with several strategies for hydrocarbon utilization

Characteristics ofcerium dioxide (CeO2, ceria). Cubic fluorite crystal structure of ceria (left). Macroscopic three-phase boundary (3PB) and two-phase boundary (2PB reactions in the metal-ceria composite anodes [27].

Schematic illustration ofthe methane oxidation pathway on mixed ionic and electronic conducting SDC electrode. (1) CH4 activation (adsorption 十 dissociation), (2) H2O formation, and (3) CO2 formation. Note that the described processes are not necessarily inorder.

DFT calculations on the methane dissociation on Ce (111). Transition state for the first H dissociation from adsorbed CH4 molecules (left) and energies and kinetics barrier along the CH4 dissociation and oxidation pathway (right) on Ce (111) surface [35].

in operando XPS studies on oxygen ion incorporation/removal reactions [38, 40]. (a) H2 electro-0xidation involving (ii) H2O formation step (or H2O electro-reduction), (b) CO electro-oxidation involving (iii) CO2 formation step (or CO2 electro-reduction).

Complicated electrode geometries ofthe typical porous composite anodes VS. model thin-film electrodes with well-defined structures.

The thin-film ceria-based model electrochemical cells. (a) Experimental results on the ceria-catalyzed dominant reaction pathways in the Pt-ceria composite anodes [27]. (b) Theoretical results on the effectofpattern spacing on the reaction resistance to the total surface resistance (fsurf.) [47].

Sophisticated interface requirement of electrode structures for concurrent ionic and electronic transport pathways for metal nanoparticles.

Schematic of the three-electrode model electrochemical cells. (WE: working electrode, CE: counter electrode, RE: reference electrode). The reactions at each electrode when applying anodic bias (methane oxidation at WE) is illustrated.

The PLD conditions for the three-electrode model electrochemical cells.

Fabrication flowchart for the three-electrode model electrochemical cells.

Photograph of the three-electrode model electrochemical cells

Photographs of gas-controlled tube furnace for impedance measurement systems.

Photographs of the electrical contact configurations for three-electrode electrochemical cells.

Schematics of the principle ofXPS and measurement set-up configurations.

Photographsofthe experimental set-up forAP-XPS analysis at beamline9.3.2 ALS, Berkeley national lab.

Photograph of the sample holder (left) and the schematic illustration of the electrical contacts (right).

Roffset (=Rysz) obtained by impedance spectra during the AP-XPS (ㅁ) and the EIS (이) experiments. The sample temperature in AP-XPS experiment was calibrated by using Roffset measured in external EIS experiment.

C1score-levelspectra beforeandafterO2 treatment. (a)720'CinUHVbefore O2. (b) 720 N in 150 mTorr O2. The red peak at 290 eV is attributed to Ce4s core-level photoelectron.

Multi-step of the applied bias and corresponding cell current for AP-XPS experiments. The cell current results obtained by repeating the application of+0.4V in the second and last steps confirm the reproducibility ofthe experiments.

X-ray diffraction spectra for epitaxial growth ofSDC thin films via PLD. (a) Out-of-plane scan results, (b)rocking curve for (200) peak, and (c) In-plane scan results.

Transmission electron micrograph and surface topological micrograph from atomic force microscope ofepitaxial SDC thin-film.

Cross-sectional SEM images of the SDC thin-film fabricated with epitaxial growth conditions. (a) SDC thin-film on patterned Pt/SDC electrode, (b) SDC thin-film on YSZ substrate. Both were obtained after EIS measurement.

SEM images of the SDC thin-film fabricated with nanocolumnar structure growth conditions. (a) top view (scale bar: 200 nm), (b) cross-section view (scale bar: 500 nm).

X-ray diffraction spectra fornanocolumnar growth ofSDC thin films via PLD. (a) Out-of-plane scan results, (b)rocking curve for (200) peak, and (c) In-plane scan results.

Pattern dimensions (W and D),and density ofthe active sites (d3PB and d2PB).

Optical microscope images of ceria thin-film working electrode. (a) Ni- exposed-type, (b) Pt-embedded-type. The dashed line in the top image of Figure 3-5(b) indicates the SDC thin-film area whose dimensions is ~2 mm2.

Thermal stability of metal micro-patterns. (a), (b) SEM images ofthe Ni and Pt patterns after EIS measurement for metal-exposed-type.(c),(d) SEM images ofthe Ptpatterns after EIS measurement for metal-embedded-type.

Typical impedance spectra ofthe asymmetric cells. The data were collected at 650'C under wetH2 atmosphere (ㅇ) and wet CH4 atmosphere (ㅁ), respectively.

Impedance spectra normalized with respect to the exposed SDC area for two different types of electrochemical cells. The data were collected at 650'C under wet CH4 atmosphere. (a) metal (Ni)-exposed, and (b) metal (Pt)-embedded cells.

Schematics showing the overpotential profile and chemical potential when anodic biasing conditions in SDC thin-film model electrochemical cells. (a) Overpotential dropprofileat each component ofthe cells. (b) Chemical potentialchangeofoxygen vacancies and Ce3+ before and after anodic biasing [40].

The effect ofoverpotential (n) on the electrochemical impedance. (a) Then dependent low frequency arc, (b)n (or pO2,eir.-dependent chemical capacitance in the double logarithmic plot. The17 values corresponding to each arc are displayed in Figure3-11(a). Filled symbolin Figure 3-11(b) indicates the data obtained at OCV.

The effect ofpCH4 on area-specific Relectrode. The double logarithmic plot of ASR VS. pCH4. Both data were obtained at650'C witha fixed pH2O(C:bare SDC, ㅁ: PtNPs- SDC, Pt-embedded).

The effectoftemperature on area-specificRelectrode. TheArrhenius-type plotof logASR VS. 1000/T whose slope corresponds to the activation energy (EA). Both data were obtained using the symmetric Ni-exposed SDC (see the section 4.4.1).

The typical C1s and 01s core-level photoemission spectra with several potential intermediate species for CH4 electro-0xidation process [37,40, 81-83].

The photoemission spectra of C1s and O1s core-level. (a) C1s (b) O1s as a function ofoverpotential under 220 mTorr of4% HzO-containing CH4 atmosphere at 720 NCC (0.6 nm ofinformation depth).

Response ofintermediate species (OH) to the applied potential. (a) Fitting results ofO1s core-level spectrum. From the top left to the bottom right, obtained under 0.15 Torr O2 (reference state) and under wet CH4 at 7 = -0.09 to +0.33 V). (b) The normalized intensity ofO and OH as a function ofthe overpotential (O:O, ◆: OH, and ●: 0 十 OH).

The response of surface [Ce3+] on SDC to the overpotential. (a) Ce4d core- level photoelectron spectra. The highlighted regtons indicate the multiplet splitting ofCe4d core-level. (b) The estimated [Ce3+] from Figure3-17(a) for the surface (O) and bulk (ㅁ).

Schematic illustration of the H2O formation pathway on SDC surface.

The bindingenergy shift ofAu4f72 and Ce4d (X'5)) core-level photoemission as a function ofapplied potential. (a) Au4f712 core-level spectra with 0V,0.2V, and 1 V.(b) The rigid shift in the Au4f7/2 peak with applied potential in the one-to-one relationship. (c) The shift in the Ce4d (X ) peak with appliedpotential.

The relationship between experimentally obtainedI(O')and calculated I(0') from I(Si2p).

The characteristics ofSi2p in terms ofpeak position (a) and intensity (b).

Schematic illustrations of the SDC electrode surface decorated with monodisperse metal nanoparticle arrays. (a) without SDC coatings (b) with SDC coatings. The H2 electro-0xidation process is depicted.

Fabrication flowchart ofthe model electrochemical cells forthe exact analysis of metal NP-catalyzed electrochemical reaction.

Specific synthesis conditions for each metal nanocluster.

SEM images of SDC surface during BCP lithography and histogram of particle diameters. (a) self-assembledBCP (PS-b-P4VP) thin film aftersolvent-annealing, (b) uniformly aligned monodiserse PtNPs, and(c)SDC encapsulatedPtNPs,(d) Particle diameter distribution for Pt NPs before and after SDC coating (Figure 4-3(b) and (c)).

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images ofSDC coated Pt NPs. (a) before, (b) after 50 hours ofAC impedance spectroscopy (ACIS) at T=600 VC

Chemical composition analysis for coated Pt NPs. (a) fast Fourier transform (FFT) ofselected area ofPt NPs (top) and coating layers (bottom) in TEM image ofFigure 4- 4(a). The interplanar distances ofFFT spots for {111}Pt are 0.227 nm, and spots for {111}Ceo2 and {200}Ce02 are 0.312, 0.271 nm, respectively. (b) X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) results ofthe coatinglayers on PtNPs to determin

EDS mapping results for coated Pt NPs. The spatial resolution is 5A for each pixel.

Thermal stability test under various gas and temperature conditions. (a) and (b) are SEM images for SDC coated PtNPs after 10hat 700 oC under air and carbon monoxide (CO) atmosphere, respectively. (c) SEM image forPtNP on SDC surface after ACIS under wet H2 atmosphere (pH2= 0.1 atm,pHzO= 0.01 atm) atTmax = 500 'C. (d) SEM images forAu NP on SDC surface with and without SDC coating after H2 anneali

Optical microscope (OM) images for the model Ni/SDC electrodes. Ni-to-Ni distance and Ni width are (a) 20 nm - 20 nm, (b) 40 um - 40 um, and (c) 10 nm 70 um, corresponding d2PB and d3PB are (d) 0.32 cm2, 3.25 m, (e)0.32 cm2, 0.16m, and (f)0. 08 cm2 0.16m, respectively. The patternsin Figures 4-8(b)and(c) were used to vary the exposedSDC area in Figure4-11.

Pattern dimensions (W and D), and density of the active sites (d3PB and d2PB).

Photographs of the electrical contact configurations for symmetric cells.

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy results. (a) Typical impedance spectra ofNi/SDC model electrodes (patterned NiJSDCJYSZSDClpatterned Ni) withoutPtNPs (bare SDC, ㅁ black), with Pt NPs (Pt/SDC, 스 red) and with SDC-coated Pt NPs (coated Pt/SDC, O blue) obtained under the conditions ofpH2 = 0.1 atm, pH2O = 0.01 atm at T= 500 CC (b) Temperature dependence of R of bare SDC (ㅁ black), Pt/SDC (스 red

Identification of the reaction sites for Pt NP decorated SDC electrode. (a) Double logarithmic plot of electrode resistance (R) of bare SDC (filled symbols) and coated Pt/SDC (opensymbols)cells VS. SDC area (AspC),pH2=0.1 atm atT= 650 ASDC represents theprojected area ofthe SDC thin-film electrodes. (b) Impedance response varying with metal NPs dispersion, measured at650 'C, pH2 = 0.1 atm, and pHz

Electrode resistance (R) of Pt-decorated SDC with different SDC coating process time.

Quantitative analysis for geometric information of Pt NPs. (i) areal number density,(ii) particle diameter, (iii) loading amount, (iv) Pt-SDC interface length, (v) Ptsurface area, and (vi) resistance normalized to Pt-SDC interface length.

Intrinsic reactivity ofPt-decorated SDC electrodes. (i) electrode conductance of Pt/SDC normalized respective to the unitlength ofPt/SDC interfaces. (ii) turnover frequency (TOF) ofPt/SDC toward H2 electrooxidation reaction, obtained under wet H2 atmosphere(pH2 = 0.1 atm,pHzO = 0.01 atm) atT= 400-500 OC

SEM images and diameter distribution of Pd, Au, and C0 nanoparticles prepared via BCP method. (a) Pd(10.2+1.7 nm), (b)Au (10.2 土 1.2 nm), and (c) Co (11.8 土 2.6 nm). Inset: SEM images of SDC-coated metal NPs with averaged coating thickness 4+ 0.2 nm in the same scale, confirmedby bottom Figure4-13(d)-(f).

Impedance spectra ofcoated four different metal NPs. The data forfourmetal NPs (ㅇ Pt, APd, V Co, and ◇Au) were obtained under wet H2 atmosphere (pH2 =0.1 atm, pH2O =0.01 atm) atT= 600'C.

DFT calculations on the H2 electro-0xidation on SDC and metal-decorated SDC electrodes. (a) H2 electro-0xidation pathway on bare SDC with the energetics of H2 adsorption and H2O production. (b) H2 electro-0xidation pathway on the Pt-coated SDC with theenergetics and electron redistribution foreachstep. ThePtNP ofPt/SDC binds and transfers H atoms to the interfacial oxygen ions of SDC (Hydrogen spi

Impedance resultsofthe model electrochemical cells with and withoutcoated Pt NPs. (a) Typical impedance spectra. (b) The effect ofoverpotential on Relectrode. The date were obtained under 3%H20/CH4 at 650 'C. (ㅁ: bare SDC, ㅇ: Coated Pt NP-SDC)

The dependence of Relectrode of the model electrochemical cells with and without coated PtNPs on pH2O. The date were obtained under 3%H2O/48%CH4/N2 at 650 iC (ㅁ: bare SDC, ㅊ: Coated PtNP-SDC).

Thephotoemission spectra ofCls and 01s core-levelfor Pt-decorated SDC. (a) C1s (b) O1s as a function of overpotential under 220 mTorr of4% HzO-containing CH4 atmosphere at 720 D (0.6 nm ofinformation depth). (c) The fitting results for 01s spectra (+0.35V).

The response ofthe valance band photoelectron spectra to the overpotential for the SDC with and without PtNPs. The electronic states occupied by surface OH (1x& 3o) or H2O molecules (1bi, 3al, 1b2) are displayed, respectively. (Information depth of~0.6 nm)

Detailed experimental conditions for chronoamperometry studies.

Linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) results. (a) Obtained in a solution containing 0.15M KNO3 with different dissolved O2 levels. O2-free: N2 bubbling for 1 hour, O2-saturated: O2 bubbling for 1 hour. (b) Obtained in a solution containing 0.05M Ce3+ with different deposition temperatures ofRT (23'C), 40'C, and 55'C to determine the deposition window. (pH =3.3+0.1, concentration ofdissolved oxygen = 2.5

Physical characterization ofthe electrochemically fabricated ceria thin films. (a)-(d) Thescanning electron microscope images ofceria thin films obtained by the applicatior of(a) -0.90V, (b) -0.80V, (c) -0.75V, (d) -0.70V VS. SCE, respectively. (Deposit mass (m) is equal to 400 ng/cm2.) (e) The X-ray diffraction patterns obtained by applying -0.70V (blue), 0.80V (purple), -0.90V (gray) VS. SCE. (f

Electrochemical characterizations ofceria CELD. (a)-(c) Double y-axes plotof potentiostatic current density-time transients (lefty-axis) and mass-time transients (righty-axis for CeO2 CELD onto Ni substratesbythe application of-0.70V, -0.80V, and -0.90V VS. SCE., respectively. (Inset: magnified plot for the initial CELD stage)

Comparison of the experimental j-t curves to the theoretical models. (a) Theoretical non-dimensional diagnostic plots ((j/jmax)2 VS. t/tmax) for respective instantaneous (3D-IN, dash line) and progressive (3D-PN, dash-dot line) nucleation and growth model controlledby diffusion and the experimentalresults ofj-tcurves in Figure 5-3(a)-(c). (b)Fitting results of with eqn (5-3) corresponding to the 3

Thesymbols and values for constants used in equation 5-3. The values ofz,M and p are corresponding to Ce(OH)3 in consideration ofour experimental conditions.

Kinetic information from fitting and efficiency comparison with different cathodic potential. (a) Kinetic parameters (C1 and C2) obtained byfittingthe current density. time transient curves with the equation (5-3). (b) Deposit mass (m) VS. charge density (Q curves forCeO2 CELD by theapplication of-0.70V, -0.80V,and -0.90V VS. SCE.,respectively

Schematic presentation ofthe CeO2 nucleation and growth at various stages of potentiostatic CELD. (a) lower magnitude of cathodic potential and (b) higher magnitude of cathodic potential. Depicted stages are (i) electro-generation of base, (ii) instantaneous nucleation, and (iii) planardiffusion-.limited growth. ThepH levels are shown as thepHishigh enough to produce cerium hydroxides, inducing th

Temperature effects on the ceria CELD. (a) Double y-axes plotofpotentiostatic current density-time transients (left y-axis) and mass-time transients (right y-axis) for CeO2 CELD onto Ni substrates by theapplication of-0.80V VS. SCE. atroom temperature, 40'C, and 55'C, respectively. (b) Theoretical non-dimensional diagnostic plots ((j/jmax)2 VS. t/tmax) for respectiveinstantaneous (3D-IN, dash line

SEM images ofthe electrochemically deposited ceria thin films with different deposition temperature. (a) Tbath = 40'C and (b) Tbath = 55'C when the deposit mass (m) is equal to 400 ng/cm2 (-0.80V VS. SCE). (see Figure 5-2(b) obtained at room temperature for comparison)

X-ray diffraction patterns obtained at room temperature (orange solid line) and 55'C (brown solid line). The crystallite size information was determined by using(111) CeO2peaks. (-0.80V VS. SCE.)

SEM images ofthe electrochemically deposited Sm doped Ceo2 thin films with different cathodic potential. (a) -0.65V,(b) -0.70V,(c)-0.80V, and (d) -0.90V VS. SCE. at room temperature. Here, we assume thatthe total charge density (Q) required to obtain the same deposit mass (m) is not different from that ofpure CeO2.

High-temperature electrochemical activity of CELD-SDC coated Ni/YSZ model electrodes. (a) Typical impedance spectra ofBare Ni/YSZ (black ㅁ), and CELD coated Ni/YSZ with different SDC film morphologies obtained by the application of-0.65V (blue ㅇ) and -0.90V (green A) VS. SCE. under wet H2 (10%H2 1.0+0.3% H2O, N2 balanced). (b) Magnified plotofFigure 5-11(a) for comparison between CELD coated sampl

The electrochemically synthesized Ni NP-SDC thin films usingmixed-cation (Ni and Ce) solutions. Four different ratio between Ni to Ce (1%, 2%,5%, 50%) in a total molar concentration of0.05 M and three different applied potential (-0.65, -0.70, -0.80V VS. SCE) were used. The deposition time foreach potential was 30 min (-0.65V), 5 min (-0.70V), and2 min (-0.80V),respectively. The reduction step was

The electrochemically synthesized Ni NP-SDC thin films by two-step CELD process. (a) Schematic flowchart for two-step CELD. (b) SEM images ofthe deposits for (i) SDC, (ii) Ni(OH)2-deposited SDC, (iii) Ni NP-SDC after reduction. (c) SEM images ofthe final films in a lower magnification. (d) TEM images ofNiNP-SDC after reduction.

The performance ofthe electrochemically synthesized NiNP-SDC thin films by two-step CELD process. (a) Electrocatalytic performance of Ni/YSZ anodes with and without CELD treatment and (b) long-term stability test under wet CH4 atmosphere at 650 2C