서지주요정보
Thermoacoustic instabilities and exhaust emissions from radially-staged H2/NH3/CH4 flames = 반경방향 다단 수소/암모니아/메탄 화염의 연소불안정 및 배기배출 특성
서명 / 저자 Thermoacoustic instabilities and exhaust emissions from radially-staged H2/NH3/CH4 flames = 반경방향 다단 수소/암모니아/메탄 화염의 연소불안정 및 배기배출 특성 / Ukhwa Jin.
발행사항 [대전 : 한국과학기술원, 2025].
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8043572

소장위치/청구기호

학술문화관(도서관)2층 학위논문

DAE 25012

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As the severity of the climate crisis resulting from global warming becomes increasingly evident, carbon neutrality has become a top global priority, significantly impacting not only international environmental regulations but also energy industry policies. Achieving carbon neutrality requires the decarbonization of energy sources in the power sector, as well as ensuring grid stability while accommodating a growing demand for electricity. In this context, low-carbon and carbon-free gas turbine power generation is expected to play a key role; however, the transition to next-generation carbon-free fuels (such as hydrogen and ammonia) must be preceded by innovations in combustion technology. This dissertation conducts a detailed analysis of gas turbine combustion phenomena using hydrogen, ammonia, and methane as fuels and also addresses the technical challenges encountered during the development of low-carbon and carbon-free gas turbine combustion systems. To mitigate flashback risk during hydrogen combustion, a combustor nozzle featuring sixty small-scale injectors with an inner diameter of 6.5 mm was employed and this setup was uniformly utilized for all experimental research to exclude the impact of nozzle geometry variations. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the combustion characteristics of these alternative fuels, experimental measurements and analyses were conducted utilizing dynamic pressure signals, OH*/CH*/NH2*/NH* chemiluminescence, OH planar laser-induced fluorescence (OH PLIF), and concentrations of NOx, CO, NH3, H2, O2 in the exhaust gases. The fuel flexibility of gas turbine combustion systems plays a crucial role in enhancing the grid stability, particularly when integrated with renewable energy sources. However, variations in fuel composition give rise to several technical issues; thus, it is imperative to closely examine the combustion characteristics associated with the alternative fuels and to incorporate this understanding into the design of the combustion system. Based on this research background, the first study aims to investigate the combustion dynamics and emissions characteristics of lean-premixed clustered flames under different fuel composition conditions. Methane, propane, and hydrogen were used as fuels to encompass a broad spectrum of thermodynamic, transport, and combustion properties. The experimental results revealed that while the nitrogen oxide emissions are almost unaffected by the fuel composition due to the constant adiabatic flame temperature, the variation of fuel composition has a significant impact on self-excited instabilities, which tend toward higher frequency oscillations with increasing hydrogen concentration. From phase-resolved OH PLIF measurements for a 50/50 mixture of CH4 and H2, we identify the creation, evolution, and annihilation of an array of coherent vortical structures as the mechanism responsible for sound generation and flame surface modulations without strong interactions between adjacent flames. In contrast, the behavior of 50% C3H8 + 50% H2 case is primarily influenced by the periodic merging and separation of neighboring reactant jets, resulting in large-scale asymmetric oscillations in the transverse direction. Given the substantial change in transport properties, effective Lewis number-related interpretation provides a reasonable explanation for the different behaviors of a cluster of small-scale flames. In order to achieve a reduction of over 50% in carbon emissions compared to pure methane, the fuel-flexible combustion system must operate with a hydrogen mole fraction of at least 80%. However, such operating conditions can induce technical issues related to high-frequency and high-amplitude combustion instabilities, which can negatively affect the overall engine system. Therefore, additional research and technical advancements are necessary to address these challenges. In line with these efforts, the second study experimentally investigated the effects of radial fuel staging on the combustion dynamics of clustered lean-premixed hydrogen/methane flames. Also, this study carefully examined the effects of flame asymmetry induced by staging on the emissions of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide. In conjunction with phase-averaged OH*/CH* chemiluminescence and OH PLIF flame imaging, we carried out extensive measurements over the full range of 0 to 100% H2/CH4 fuel staging conditions, including even/uneven blends of H2/CH4 fuels between inner and outer nozzle groups, partial/complete fuel split cases, and pure H2 or CH4 fuel for all constituent flames, under a constant thermal power condition of 78 kW. Our measurements demonstrated that whereas carbon monoxide concentrations are largely unaffected by the radial fuel staging conditions except under high and pure hydrogen percentage conditions, there exists a strong correlation between total nitrogen oxides emissions and overall adiabatic flame temperature. Integrated analyses of iso-contour instability maps revealed that a discontinuous mode transition takes place, where the intermediate-amplitude lower frequency oscillations associated with relatively low hydrogen concentration conditions give way to stronger, higher frequency instabilities under high hydrogen content conditions. While even-blend (non-staging) conditions are characterized by coherent oscillations of the constituent flames, the responses of clustered flames to radial fuel staging conditions are eccentric and complex, manifested as large-scale asynchronous modulations between inner- and outer-stage heterogeneous reaction zones. This observation suggests that in a multi-element injector environment spatiotemporal incoherence driven by inhomogeneous heat release can be used to neutralize self-excited pressure oscillations, by disrupting pressure-heat release coupling processes. The large-scale direct utilization of two carbon-free fuels, ammonia and hydrogen, is currently attracting significant interest in the context of the development of new gas turbine combustion technologies, with paying close attention to the reduction of nitrogen oxides and unburned ammonia emissions. Motivated by recent observations that rich-premixed conditions tend to mitigate excessive NOx emissions from ammonia combustion, and that uniformly blended ammonia-hydrogen fuel/air mixtures tend to increase NOx production exponentially, here we propose a hybrid configuration of hydrogen-doped rich-premixed ammonia-air flames (inner stage) and lean-premixed pure hydrogen-air flames (outer stage) in a radially stratified primary reaction zone. This fuel staging scheme offers a possible mechanism for chemical kinetics-controlled NOx abatement and asymmetry-induced thermoacoustic instability suppression. The relevance and feasibility of the unconventional premixing approach are rigorously evaluated based on detailed measurements of exhaust gas concentrations and self-excited pressure fluctuations, in conjunction with OH*/NH2*/NH* chemiluminescence and OH PLIF imaging measurements. We observed that drastically different non-homogeneous reaction regions can be stably established in a comparatively compact combustion volume without producing negative flame stabilization effects – such as blowoff of less reactive ammonia flames and flashback of more reactive hydrogen flames. As compared with the uniform-blend baseline condition, the hybrid staging method is shown to significantly mitigate total nitrogen oxides emissions, from 7764 to 310 ppmvd (96% reduction), and achieving an approximately two-fold reduction in dynamic pressure amplitude. Interestingly, hydrogen-enriched rich-premixed ammonia flames are revealed to exhibit anomalous oscillatory states originating from the preferential diffusion of hydrogen molecules and reaction rate-dependent separation of reactive layers, enabling interacting non-homogeneous reaction zones with markedly different characteristic time scales to resist the growth of intense pressure perturbations.

지구온난화로 인한 기후위기의 심각성이 부각됨에 따라, 탄소중립이 범세계적인 패러다임으로 자리 잡으며 글로벌 환경 규제뿐만 아니라 에너지 산업 정책에도 중대한 영향을 미치고 있다. 탄소중립을 달성하기 위해 발전 부문의 에너지원 탈탄소화는 필수 과제이며, 전력수요 증가에 대응하면서 전력계통의 안정성을 확보하는 노력도 필요하다. 이러한 상황 속에서 저탄소/무탄소 가스터빈 발전이 핵심적인 역할을 할 것으로 전망되지만, 차세대 무탄소 연료(수소, 암모니아 등)로의 전환은 연소기술의 혁신이 선행되어야 한다. 본 논문에서는 수소/암모니아/메탄 기반의 가스터빈 연소 현상을 면밀하게 분석하고, 저탄소/무탄소 가스터빈 연소시스템 개발 과정에서 직면하는 기술적 난제에 대한 해결 방안을 제시하기도 하였다. 참고로, 수소 전소 시 역화 발생을 미연에 방지하기 위해 소형 인젝터 60개로 구성된 가스터빈 연소시험 설비를 활용하였고, 이를 모든 실험적 연구에 동일하게 이용함으로써 노즐의 기하학적 구조 변화에 기인하는 영향을 배제하였다. 수소/암모니아/메탄 단일/혼합연료의 연소특성을 다각도에서 폭넓게 이해하기 위해 동압 신호, OH*/CH*/NH2*/NH* 자발광, OH 평면 레이저 유도 형광 (OH PLIF), 그리고 배기가스 내 NOx/CO/NH3/H2/O2 농도 등을 계측하여 분석에 활용하였다. 가스터빈 연소시스템의 연료다변화는 신재생에너지의 간헐성에 의한 불안정한 전력공급 문제를 해소할 수 있는 방안이다. 그러나 연료조성의 변화는 다양한 기술적 난제를 초래할 수 있으므로, 목표로 하는 연료조성 조건에 대한 연소특성을 면밀하게 파악하고 이를 연소시스템 설계에 반영하는 것이 중요하다. 이러한 연구 배경을 바탕으로, 첫 번째 연구에서는 희박-예혼합 군집화염의 연료다변화 특성을 연소진동과 주요 배기물질 배출 관점에서 심도 있게 분석하고자 하였다. 이를 위해 열역학적 성질과 연소특성이 상이한 메탄, 프로판, 수소를 연료로 사용하였으며, 수소/메탄/프로판 연료의 혼소 및 전소를 포함하는 광범위한 실험 조건에서 연구를 수행하였다. 실험 조건은 총 15개로 구성되고, 연료 조성비는 체적 기준으로 25% 간격으로 변한다. 실험 결과, 15% 산소 농도 기준으로 보정된 질소산화물 배출량은 모든 실험 조건에서 2 ppmvd 이하로 계측되었으며, 이는 동일 단열화염온도 조건에서는 연료조성의 변화가 질소산화물 생성에 미치는 영향이 미미함을 시사한다. 반면, 일산화탄소 농도는 메탄/프로판 조건에서 18 ppmvd로 비교적 높게 계측되었으나, 수소 몰분율이 증가함에 따라 급격히 감소하는 경향을 보였다. 연소진동 특성의 경우, 메탄/프로판 조건에서 길이방향 1차 음향모드에 해당하는 200 Hz대의 저주파 연소진동이 발생하며, 수소/메탄 및 수소/프로판 연료 조합에서는 길이방향 3-5차 음향모드가 여기되어 고주파의 압력섭동이 발생하는 특징을 보였다. 이는 혼합연료 내 수소 함량이 증가할수록 희박-예혼합 군집화염이 고주파 연소진동에 매우 취약해진다는 것을 의미한다. 또한 위상동기화 이미지 분석을 통해, 수소/메탄 혼소 조건에서 와류구조와 화염 간 상호작용이 전체 군집화염의 거동을 지배하는 반면, 수소/프로판 화염은 인접 화염 간 주기적인 병합과 분리에 의해 그 동적 특성이 결정됨을 실험적으로 규명하였다. 연료다변화 연소시스템에서 메탄 전소 대비 탄소 배출량을 절반 이상 줄이기 위해서는 최소 80% 이상의 수소 혼소율 적용이 필수적이다. 하지만 높은 수소 혼소율은 고주파 및 고진폭 연소진동 문제를 유발하여 엔진시스템 전반에 부정적인 영향을 미칠 수 있으므로, 이를 극복하기 위한 연구와 관련 기술 개발이 선행되어야 한다. 이와 같은 연구 배경으로, 두 번째 연구에서는 수소/메탄 혼소 조건에서 반경방향 다단연소가 희박-예혼합 군집화염의 연소진동 특성에 미치는 영향을 실험적으로 파악하였고, 다단연소로 인한 군집화염의 비대칭성이 질소산화물 및 일산화탄소 배출량에 미치는 영향도 면밀히 살펴보았다. 총 25개의 독립적인 실험 조건을 설정하였고, 모든 조건에서 연소진동, 질소산화물/일산화탄소 배출량, 화염구조에 관한 계측을 진행하여 방대한 실험 데이터를 확보하였다. 분석 결과, 시스템 내부로 공급되는 혼합연료의 수소 몰분율이 높아질수록 압력섭동의 진폭과 주파수가 비선형적으로 증가함이 확인되었고, 특히 군집화염의 비대칭 정도와 관계없이 50%의 수소 혼소율을 기점으로 시스템의 동적 특성이 비교적 낮은 진폭의 저주파 음향모드에서 고진폭의 고주파 모드로 천이하는 현상이 관찰되었다. 더 나아가, 내부와 외부 유로로 서로 다른 연료가 공급되는 경우, 두 영역에 형성된 예혼합 화염들 간의 상당한 반응성 차이로 전체 가스터빈 연소시스템에서 발생하는 음향장의 비동기화가 가능함을 실험적으로 증명하였다. 이는 군집화염의 비동기화로 인한 열 방출율 섭동의 위상 상쇄를 통해 연소진동 저감이 가능함을 시사한다. 질소산화물 농도는 다단연소의 방향성과 강도와 무관하게 전체 단열화염온도에 비례하여 증가하는 반면, 일산화탄소 배출량의 경우 극도로 높은 수소 혼소율 조건을 제외하고는 다단연소에 대한 민감도가 비교적 낮음을 확인하였다. 발전 부문에서 암모니아의 활용가치는 지속적으로 증가하고 있다. 암모니아는 저장성이 우수하여 수소 캐리어나 에너지 매개체로 활용될 수 있으며, 탄소를 포함하지 않는 가연성 물질이기에 무탄소 연료로도 이용 가능하다. 그러나 암모니아를 청정 에너지원으로 활용하기 위해서는 다양한 기술적 난제를 극복해야 한다. 특히, 암모니아의 현저히 낮은 반응성은 희박 날림과 같은 화염 안정성 문제를 유발하며, 암모니아 분자 내 질소 원자가 포함되어 있어 연소 시 다량의 질소산화물이 생성된다. 상술한 문제를 해결하기 위해서는 암모니아 연소에 적합한 새로운 연소기술 개발이 필수적이다. 이러한 연구 배경으로, 마지막 연구에서는 수소 혼소와 반경방향 다단연소를 결합한 새로운 연소기술을 개발하고 이를 가스터빈 연소시스템에 적용하여 암모니아 연소에서 발생하는 기술적 문제를 근본적으로 해결하고자 하였다. 이 기법은 수소/암모니아 혼소에 적용 가능한 반경방향 다단연소 기법으로, 동일 평면 내에서 과농-예혼합 암모니아 화염과 희박-예혼합 수소 화염이 공존하는 것이 특징이다. 극한의 질소산화물 배출 조건에서 해당 기법의 효과를 살펴보기 위해 암모니아 몰분율을 30%로 고정하고, 실제 발전용 가스터빈 연소기와 유사한 온도 환경을 형성시키기 위해 단열화염온도는 1800 K으로 유지하였다. 반응성이 현저하게 낮은 암모니아를 수소 기반 연소시스템에 곧바로 적용하였음에도 불구하고, 암모니아 화염은 주변 수소 화염의 존재로 인하여 덤프면에 안정적으로 부착 및 유지될 뿐 아니라 비교적 좁은 반응 영역 내에 형성되는 것을 관찰하였다. 배기가스 내 질소산화물의 농도는 7764에서 310 ppmvd로 감소하여 기준 조건 대비 96%의 감소율을 보였으며, 이와 동시에 연소진동의 강도는 반경방향 다단연소로 인한 대칭성 붕괴로 인해 약 절반 수준으로 감소함을 실험적으로 입증하였다. 특히, 내부 영역에 형성된 과농-예혼합 암모니아 화염에서 발생하는 미연소 암모니아와 새롭게 생성되는 상당한 양의 수소는 외부 영역의 과잉 공기와 반응하여 소모되는데, 이는 높은 연소효율을 확보할 수 있음을 의미한다. 추가적으로 화염의 거동을 분석한 결과, 소량의 수소가 첨가된 과농-예혼합 암모니아 화염은 수소 분자의 선호확산과 연료 간 반응속도 차이에 따른 반응층 분리로 인하여 변칙적인 거동을 보이는 것으로 나타났다. 이는 시간 스케일이 다른 반응 영역 간 상호작용을 통해 강한 압력 섭동을 제어할 수 있음을 시사한다.

서지기타정보

서지기타정보
청구기호 {DAE 25012
형태사항 xii, 123 p. : 삽화 ; 30 cm
언어 영어
일반주기 저자명의 한글표기: 진욱화
지도교수의 영문표기: Kim, Kyu Tae
지도교수의 한글표기: 김규태
학위논문 학위논문(박사) - 한국과학기술원 : 항공우주공학과,
서지주기 References: p. 105-122
주제 Gas turbine combustion
Fuel flexibility
Hydrogen
Ammonia
Combustion dynamics
Exhaust gas emissions
Fuel staging
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이 주제의 인기대출도서

Correlation between global CO2 emissions and Earth's surface temperature from 1850 to 2023, based on data from [3, 5|.

Carbon emissions intensity by power sources [6.

Global energy mix outlook by scenarios for achieving carbon neutrality by 2050 [16].

General Electric's power-tohydrogen energy ecosystem concept 27|

Direct comparison between existing storage technologies 38I

(a) Configuration of gas turbine and (b) schematic of gas turbine open cycle system.

Compressor and turbine section of GE's SPRINT LM6000 gas turbine engine

Classification of the gas turbine combustion system: (left) can type combustor, (middle can-annular type combustor, and (right) annular type combustor.

Combustion characteristics of diffusion and lean premixed modes 28.

Process flow diagram for carbon capture technologies in combustion devices.

Thermodynamics properties and fundamental combustion characteristics of metha propane, hydrogen, and ammonia at 300 K and 1 atm 47-50].

Direct comparison of flame luminescence photographs taken digital SLR camera: (a) ammonia air flame VS. methane air flames in a swirl burner [51] and (b) methane/air flames VS. hydro- gen air flames in a multi-element injector array.

Closed feedback loop responsible for combustion instabilities.

A heavy-duty gas turbine combustor damaged by thermoacoustic instability 178

Normalized combustor pressure amplitude plotted against the phase difference between pressure and heat release rate [88].

Dependence of the acoustic driving, H(A), and damping, D(A), processes on amplitude A for (a) Linearly unstable system and (b) Nonlinearly unstable system [78].

Typical images of swirling ammonia flame at different equivalence ratio in the absence and presence of plasma [170].

Laminar burning velocity NH3/O2/N2 mixtures with different oxygen contents, at a reactant temperature of 298 K and an initial pressure of 1 atm [192].

NO emissions from lean-premixed ammonia hydrogen/air flames with respect to (a ammonia fraction and equivalence ratio [167], and (b) pressure and equivalence ratio [166].

Computed 2D profiles of temperature and mole fraction of NO in the two-stage non- premixed combustion of CHA-NHg-air mixture with 20% ammonia by heat fraction [179].

Sampled NO (empty) and NH3 (filled) emissions for each NH3-H2 flame configuration at STP [163].

Exhaust emissions (ppm at 15% 02) as a function ofequivalence ratio at thermal power of5 kW: (a) NO, (b) NH3, and (c) H2 [199].

3-dimensional CAD model image of the combustion test facility and measurement sys- tems including photomultiplier tubes, OH PLIF laser diagnostics, and exhaust gas emissions measure- ment setups. Direct flame luminescence photographs of densely-dstributed lean-premixed multi-element H2/CH4 air flames at the hydrogen mole fraction of 0.75 and the adiabatic flame temperature of 1930 K, recorded by d

Experimental setup. (a) Cross-sectional view of multi-element injector assembly and laboratory-scale, fuel-flexible combustion test facility, together with schematic illustrations of air fuel supply systems, OHPLIF imaging measurement setup, and exhaust gas sampling measurement systems. (b) Topview ofsixty identical millimeter-scale swirl injectors: 16inner stage and 44 outer stage injectors. Each

Configuration of the global chemiluninescence emission intensity measurement system.

Chemiluminescence emission spectra in premixed flames under atmospheric pressure condi- tions: (a) lean-premixed methane-air flame at an equivalence ratio of0.8 and an inlet temperature of 673 K [215], and (b) premixed ammonia-air flame under the stoichiometric condition at room temperature [56].

Schematic of OH PLIF image measurement setup. Abbreviations: DM = dichroic mirror, CL = cylindrical lens, SL = spherical lens, BD = beam dump, BP = bandpass filter.

(a) Measured and simulated OH LIF spectral intensities over the wavelength range between 282.50 and 283.50 nm. (b) Direct comparison between measurement and simulation near Q1(6) and Q1(7) lines of the A2Z+ - X2II (1, 0) transition.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations for NOx emissions from stationary gas turbines 225|

Measurement range and analysis principle for Horiba emission measurement system

Schematic ofthe nitrogen dilution method for exhaust gas emissions measurement systems.

(a) Test matrix used for the present study. Filled circle symbols indicate fifteen fue blendingconditions (in volume percent) for gaseous methane, propane, and hydrogen fuels. Here, propan is considered for blending with methane and/or hydrogen depending on performance and operabilit requirements. The adiabatic flame temperature was maintained constant at Tad = 1880 K for all tes points considered

Summary of test conditions.

Stable flame structures of lean fully-premixed CH4 H2/air flames with different fuel blend- ing ratios corresponding to test points (a) to (e). (a1-e1): Time-averaged line-of-sight integrated OH* chemiluminescence images ofthe entire reaction zone. (x, r) = (0, 0) indicates the nozzle array's center (a2-e2): Instantaneous OH fluorescence images for 60x60 mm2 region ofinterest marked in (al) to (e1

(a) Normalized OH* chemiluminescence intensity profile in stream-wise and radial directions for five CH4 H2 air cases. (b) Relationship between reactant jet penetration depth and reciprocal of laminar flame speed, normalized by injector diameter (dnozzle = 6.5 mm) and maximum flamespeed for pure hydrogen (SL,max = SL,case(e) = 189.1 cm/08 taken from Table 3.1), respectively. Data are mean 土 standa

Self-excited instability frequency, normalized amplitudes of acoustic pressure, and global heat release rate fluctuations plotted against combustor length for the entire test matrix: (a) CH4 十 C3Hs, (b) CH4 + H2, (c) C3Hs 十 H2, and (d) CH4 十 C3H8 + H2 blending conditions. Alc is held constant 25 mm, except for pure hydrogen conditions, at which Alc = 50 mm. Experimental data for pure hydrogen case

Iso-contour stability maps for constant combustor length oflc = 1300 mm (left column and lc = 1700 mm (right column), expressed in terms of (a, b) dominant instability frequency, (c, d normalized amplitude of combustor pressure fluctuations, and (e, f) normalized amplitude ofglobal heat release rate oscillations. Middle and bottom: The color scale reveals local domains with stable (blue) intermedi

Sequence of phase-synchronized single-shot OH PLIF images during a period of limit cycle oscillations for Cases C and g. The limit cycle frequencies of these two cases are 340 and 301 Hz, respectively. The bottom images show the calculated flame edge at six different phase angles in 60이 increments. Relative phase angles are indicated in 3.7 in conjunction with unfiltered combustor pressure and glo

Time traces of combustor pressure (solid line) and global OH* chemiluminescence intensity fluctuations (dashed line), corresponding to two cases presented in Fig. 3.7: Case C and g. Bandpass- filtered pressure signals (dotted line), which were used to trigger intensified CCD camera, are shown together, overlaid with 00 to 3609 phase angles (gray circles).

Iso-contour ternary plots of (a) nitrogen oxides and (b) carbon monoxide emissions by volume on a dry basis, corrected to 15% O2 (in units of ppmvd). (c) The entire dataset of self-excitec instability measurements simultaneously represents instability frequencies and normalized pressure am plitude: color coding indicates instability frequency. Overlapping circle symbols are attributed mainl to var

(a) Calculated thermal power of all test conditions when the adiabatic flame temperature is maintained constant at 1880 K, assuming complete combustion. (b) Adiabatic flame temperature distribution when thermal power is held at 68 kW.

(a) Test matrix in terms of hydrogen mole fractions in inner (abscissa: XH2,i = 0.00 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00) and outer stage (ordinate: XH2,o = 0.00, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00), graphically representing a total of 25 operating conditions (from a, to y, listed in Table 4.1). Colored squares are used to differentiate various fuel split and blending conditions: dark gray (pure H2 or CH4), blue (even ble

Summary of test conditions.

Stableflameimages under five different fuel split conditions (Case u, 9, m, i,e,left to right) (a1-a5, b1-b5): Time-averaged line-of-sight integrated OH* and CH* chemiluminescence images of the entire reaction zone, with a spatial resolution of0.145 mm pixel. Flow direction is from top to bottom in a positive xc direction. (x, r) = (0, 0) indicates the nozzle array center. (c1-c5): Instantaneous O

Illustration of iso-contour instability maps in the <XH2,i, XH2,0> domain as a function of combustor length, expressed in terms of the normalized amplitude of combustor pressure fluctuations (left) and dominant instability frequency (right). Linear interpolation was applied to all iso-contour graphs using pseudo-color to enhance the visibility ofinstability maps. Open circles in Fig. 4.3a indicate

Iso-contour instability maps for constant combustor length, expressed in terms of the nor- malized amplitude of combustor pressure fluctuations and corresponding dominant instability frequency

Self-excited flame dynamics at Case e, (XH2,i, XH2,o) = (1.00, 0.00): phase-synchronizec OH* and CH* chemiluminescence images (top and middle), and single-shot OHPLIFimages (bottom) for 55x55mm2 local interrogation region marked in Fig. 5.4a duringa period oflimitcycle oscillations at 215 Hz. Twelve phase angles are indicated in Fig. 4.7a, along with global OH* and CH* chemiluminescenot intensity

Self-excited flame dynamics at Case u, (XH2,i, XH2,o) = (0.25, 1.00): sequence of phase synchronized OH* and CH* chemiluminescence images (top and middle row), and single-shot OH PLIF images (bottom row) for 55x55 mm2 region of interest marked in Fig. 4.6a during a period of limit cycle oscillations at 484 Hz. Phase angles are indicated in Fig. 4.7b, along with global OH* and CH* chemiluminescence

Toppanel: integrated OH* and CH* chemiluninescence intensity profiles calculated using corresponding phase-resolved images presented in Figs. 4.5 and 4.6 (ICCD measurements). Inner and outer regions of interest for Case e are indicated by yellow and green lines in Fig. 4.5a. Limit cycle frequencies are 215 and 484 Hz for Cases e and u, respectively. Bottom panel: corresponding acoustic pressure si

Iso-contour plots of(a) total nitrogen oxides and (b) carbon monoxide emissions by volume on a dry basis, corrected to 15% oxygen (reported in units of ppmvd). These measurements wer( performed under thermoacoustically stable conditions at a residence time of about 30 ms. (c) Entire instability dataset overlaid with iso-contours of global hydrogen mole fraction (XH2,g) in the same <XH2,i XH2,o) te

Summary of test conditions.

Graphical representation of global and local properties for nine test conditions ranging from UB to A5, plotted in terms of (a) local ammonia concentration and (b) local equivalence ratio of inner and outer stages. Overall ammonia concentration and equivalence ratio were maintained constant at 0.30 and 0.56 for all experiments considered in this chapter (horizontal dashed lines). Here, ammonia mol

Left: Computed NO concentration plotted against full range of ammonia (or hydrogen mole fraction. Right: NO/NH3 H2 concentrations versus globalequivalence ratio, equivalent to adiabatic flame temperature, under 90/10 NH3 H2 fuel blending condition. The Gotama mechanism ?? was employed for these calculations, assuming an elevated reactant temperature of 473 K and standard atmospheric pressure of 10

Flame structures measured under thermoacoustically stable conditions for all test condi- tions listed in Table 5.1. (a, b, c) Intensity-normalized OH* NH2 * /NH* chemiluminescence images for 120x120 mm2 whole reaction region, with spatial resolution of0.140 mm pixel. Flow direction is from top to bottom. (d) Instantaneous OH PLIF images for 55x50 mm2 local interrogation region marked with white da

(a) Iso-contour instability maps represented in terms ofstrength of self-excited instability, with color being associated with peak-to-peak pressure oscillation magnitude (in unit ofkPa). Dynamic pressure signals measured at combustor dump plane were used (p/ in Fig. 2.2). For each test condition listed in Table 5.1, combustor length was varied between 1200 and 1800 mm in 50 mm increments to measu

Self-excited flame dynamics of Case A, representing the uniform-blend condition with (XNH3,i, XNH3,o) = (0.3, 0.3) and (Oi, ㅇo) = (0.56, 0.56). Phase-averaged line-of-sight integrated OH*/NH2* emission intensities (top and middle) and ensemble-averaged planar OH fluorescence im- age during a single period of limit cycles (bottom). Four crenelated rectangular objects above each OH PLIF image indica

Self-excited flame dynamics ofCase B, representing hydrogen-doped rich-premixed ammo nia flames embedded in lean-premixed pure hydrogen flames. Test condition: (XNH3,i, XNH3,o) = (0.9 0.0) and (0i, ㅇo) = (1.10, 0.41). Phase-averaged line-of-sight integrated OH* NH2 * emission intensities (top and middle) and ensemble-averaged planar OH fluorescence image during a single period oflimit cycles (bott

Time series data for Cases A and B presented in Fig. 5.4. Top panel: acoustic pressure oscillations during two periods of limit cycle oscillation. Gray circles indicate twelve consecutive phase angles used for phased-resolved imaging, as shown in Figs. 5.5 and 5.6. Bottom panel: corresponding normalized global chemiluminescence emissions intensity fluctuations for OH* and NH2 * excited radicals me